Bibliographies

 

Selba, M. C., Bryson, E. R., Rosenberg, C. L., Heng, H. G., & DeLeon, V. B. (2020). Selective breeding in domestic dogs: How selecting for a short face impacted canine neuroanatomy. The Anatomical Record, 304(1), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.24471

 

The article “Selective breeding in domestic dogs: How selecting for a short face impacted canine neuroanatomy.” consists of research from Selba, Bryson, Rosenberg, and DeLeon who are all graduate students at the University of Florida, and Heng, a graduate student at Purdue University. All researchers are interested in the areas of  cranial morphology, comparative anatomy, evolution, facial reduction, selective breeding, and pedagogy. Their collective research, published in 2020, is the first of its kind, investigating how selecting smaller, “cuter”, faces in brachycephalic (shorter-faced) dogs impacts the anatomy of their brain through the analysis of endocasts – a type of internal cast created to assess the properties of the otherwise inaccessible space of the brain. The team generated these endocasts using CT scans, and utilized geometric morphometric analyses – or a quantitative method measuring the form of shape of a three-dimensional object. Four types of dog species were compared to an unidentified species. The researchers discovered that the shape of the endocast correlates with the cephalic index, meaning ​​a number obtained by taking the maximum width of the head of an organism, multiplying it by 100 and then dividing it by their maximum length. In other words, the researchers found that by selecting dog breeds with smaller faces, there was a visible effect on the shape of the endocast by the cephalic index. Researchers also found that the majority of the shape variance was associated with the dog’s olfactory anatomy, or the bodily structures that make up the sense of smell. This source will be useful in my own research and animal advocacy project because it provides the scientific reasoning as to why selective dog breeding is harmful. This study provides evidence that opting for more “preferable” features of dogs changes the shapes of their brains and thus affecting their capacity to live and function comfortably.

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Pedigree dogs health problems | RSPCA - RSPCA - rspca.org.uk. (n.d.). RSPCA. https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/dogs/puppy/pedigreedogs/health

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RSPCA, or Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, published an article called “Pedigree dogs health problems” in which they provide credible evidence that the welfare and quality of life of dogs is severely diminished when they are purebred or pedigree selected. RSPCA is a charity in England and Wales that promotes animal welfare. This article presents the specific features of dogs that are affected due to selective breeding, such as how flatter and smaller faces lead to breathing issues, bulging or sunken eyes cause pain or blindness, and floppy ears lead to ear infections and injury – they also prevent dogs from raising their ears to communicate with other dogs. Breeding for smaller bodies also causes smaller hips which make birth difficult and painful, while larger and heavier dogs suffer internal issues such as heart or joint problems. Dogs also develop other issues with their tails and skin, making life uncomfortable all around. This article also offers how you can help your dog if they have these features, and how to rescue a dog as opposed to supporting selective dog breeding. This article is concluded with two documents that give more comprehensive lists of inherited diseases and exaggerated features that result from selective dog breeding. Although the RSPCA is a charity, they are also a credible source as they strive to provide factual, up-to-date scientific information. They have an in-house science group, consisting of about 20 postgraduate and postdoctoral animal welfare scientists researching current issues about all animals. This source will be useful in my advocacy project because it touches more on the physical effects that dogs actually live with when they are selectively bred. Other articles I have selected provide a higher level of scientific research, but this source is just as important in describing more tangible effects.

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(view the pdf files of the diseases and feature lists below, from the RSPCA website)

 

 

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Akey, J. M., Ruhe, A. L., Akey, D. T., Wong, A. K., Connelly, C. F., Madeoy, J., Nicholas, T. J., & Neff, M. W. (2010). Tracking footprints of artificial selection in the dog genome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(3), 1160–1165. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0909918107

 

The study "Tracking Footprints of Artificial Selection in the Dog Genome" by Akey et al. (2020) researches the genetics behind the variety of traits we see in dog breeds. Researchers consist of notable professors from the Department of Genome Sciences at the University of Washington, Seattle, Center for Veterinary Genetics at UC Davis, Center for Canine Health and Performance, Translational Genomics Research Institute in Phoenix, AZ, and The Van Andel Research Institute in Grand Rapids, MI. Dogs have been shaped by humans through selective breeding for thousands of years, but the specific genetic changes responsible for this diversity were relatively unknown until recently. The study introduces how dogs are one of the species with the most variety on the planet, with over 400 distinct breeds, each with their own characteristics of fur, built, ect. from breeding. In this study, researchers scanned the genomes of 275 dogs from ten different breeds. They looked at over 21,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), or genetic markers. The scan identified 155 regions in the dog genomes that showed strong signs of selection, or areas where specific traits were favored. Some genes were linked to specific traits, which suggest that changes in gene regulation have greatly altered the variety of dog breeds seen today. This study provides the first detailed map of how selective dog breeding has shaped the genome of the dog. Knowing how these genomes have formed can help us to improve dog health by educating and promoting the dog breeding community on genetic diversity. This source will be useful to my personal project because this knowledge has practical applications in breeding and veterinary care needed as a result of selective breeding. Understanding a specific issue that dogs are facing is integral to the proper treatment and knowing how to avoid this problem potentially recurring.